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Basic storage unit is a cell (one bit per cell). Multiple RAM chips form a memory. Static RAM (SRAM) Each cell stores bit with a six-transistor circuit. Retains value indefinitely, as long as it is kept powered. Relatively insensitive to disturbances such as electrical noise. Faster and more expensive than DRAM. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Each cell stores bit with a capacitor and transistor. Value must be refreshed every 10-100 ms. Sensitive to disturbances. Slower and cheaper than SRAM. n 07    AdConventional DRAM organizationBd x w DRAM: dw total bits organized as d supercells of size w bits> 7  ,  BeReading DRAM supercell (2,1) hStep 1(a): Row access strobe (RAS) selects row 2. Step 1(b): Row 2 copied from DRAM array to row buffer.,iHCfReading DRAM supercell (2,1) Step 2(a): Column access strobe (CAS) selects col 1. Step 2(b): Supercell (2,1) copied from buffer to data lines, and eventually back to the CPU.,!n,. IDgMemory modulesEhEnhanced DRAMs yAll enhanced DRAMs are built around the conventional DRAM core. Fast page mode DRAM (FPM DRAM) Access contents of row with [RAS, CAS, CAS, CAS, CAS] instead of [(RAS,CAS), (RAS,CAS), (RAS,CAS), (RAS,CAS)]. Extended data out DRAM (EDO DRAM) Enhanced FPM DRAM with more closely spaced CAS signals. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) Driven with rising clock edge instead of asynchronous control signals. Double data-rate synchronous DRAM (DDR SDRAM) Enhancement of SDRAM that uses both clock edges as control signals. Video RAM (VRAM) Like FPM DRAM, but output is produced by shifting row buffer Dual ported (allows concurrent reads and writes)AUZoa"Z8aZGa.ZDaZnaAo8    G  # D n hFiNonvolatile memoriesDRAM and SRAM are volatile memories Lose information if powered off. Nonvolatile memories retain value even if powered off. Generic name is read-only memory (ROM). Misleading because some ROMs can be read and modified. Types of ROMs Programmable ROM (PROM) Eraseable programmable ROM (EPROM) Electrically eraseable PROM (EEPROM) Flash memory Firmware Program stored in a ROM Boot time code, BIOS (basic input/ouput system) graphics cards, disk controllers. N$!7_m R$!7"    :   R  $$> ' _,GjTypical bus structureA bus is a collection of parallel wires that carry address, data, and control signals. Buses are typically shared by multiple devices.,HkMemory read transaction (1)'CPU places address A on the memory bus.((IlMemory read transaction (2)TMain memory reads A from the memory bus, retreives word x, and places it on the bus.UU) #JmMemory read transaction (3)>CPU read word x from the bus and copies it into register %eax.??:KnMemory write transaction (1)g CPU places address A on bus. Main memory reads it and waits for the corresponding data word to arrive.hhLoMemory write transaction (2)# CPU places data word y on the bus.$$MpMemory write transaction (3)F Main memory read data word y from the bus and stores it at address A.GGNq Disk geometryDisks consist of platters, each with two surfaces. Each surface consists of concentric rings called tracks. Each track consists of sectors separated by gaps.3Or$Disk geometry (Muliple-platter view)Ps Disk capacityCapacity: maximum number of bits that can be stored. Vendors express capacity in units of gigabytes (GB), where 1 GB = 10^9. Capacity is determined by these technology factors: Recording density (bits/in): number of bits that can be squeezed into a 1 inch segment of a track. Track density (tracks/in): number of tracks that can be squeezed into a 1 inch radial segment. Areal density (bits/in2): product of recording and track density. Modern disks partition tracks into disjoint subsets called recording zones Each track in a zone has the same number of sectors, determined by the circumference of innermost track. Each zone has a different number of sectors/track 5J4L ,J4  R    R    5  ;u'Qt Computing disk capacityQCapacity = (# bytes/sector) x (avg. # sectors/track) x (# tracks/surface) x (# surfaces/platter) x (# platters/disk) Example: 512 bytes/sector 300 sectors/track (on average) 20,000 tracks/surface 2 surfaces/platter 5 platters/disk Capacity = 512 x 300 x 20000 x 2 x 5 = 30,720,000,000 = 30.72 GB VjDjD  Ru$Disk operation (Single-platter view)TwDisk access timeAverage time to access some target sector approximated by : Taccess = Tavg seek + Tavg rotation + Tavg transfer Seek time (Tavg seek) Time to position heads over cylinder containing target sector. Typical Tavg seek = 9 ms Rotational latency (Tavg rotation) Time waiting for first bit of target sector to pass under r/w head. Tavg rotation = 1/2 x 1/RPMs x 60 sec/1 min Transfer time (Tavg transfer) Time to read the bits in the target sector. Tavg transfer = 1/RPM x 1/(avg # sectors/track) x 60 secs/1 min.<8Y#pm<8  Y  p m<  O!E78=UxDisk access time exampleGiven: Rotational rate = 7,200 RPM Average seek time = 9 ms. Avg # sectors/track = 400. Derived: Tavg rotation = 1/2 x (60 secs/7200 RPM) x 1000 ms/sec = 4 ms. Tavg transfer = 60/7200 RPM x 1/400 secs/track x 1000 ms/sec = 0.02 ms Taccess = 9 ms + 4 ms + 0.02 ms Important points: Access time dominated by seek time and rotational latency. First bit in a sector is the most expensive, the rest are free. SRAM access time is about 4 ns/doubleword, DRAM about 60 ns Disk is about 40,000 times slower than SRAM, 2,500 times slower then DRAM. Q LQ   Lt=!;  aVyLogical disk blocksModern disks present a simpler abstract view of the complex sector geometry: The set of available sectors is modeled as a sequence of b-sized logical blocks (0, 1, 2, ...) Mapping between logical blocks and actual (physical) sectors Maintained by hardware/firmware device called disk controller. Converts requests for logical blocks into (surface,track,sector) triples. Allows controller to set aside spare cylinders for each zone. Accounts for the difference in  formatted capacity and  maximum capacity . MU_Z=UZ>UMZUMA= > SWzI/O BusX{Reading a disk sector (1)Y|Reading a disk sector (2)Z}Reading a disk sector (3)[~Storage trends\CPU clock rates]The CPU-Memory gap7 The increasing gap between DRAM, disk, and CPU speeds.^LocalityOPrinciple of Locality: Programs tend to reuse data and instructions near those they have used recently, or that were recently referenced themselves. Temporal locality: Recently referenced items are likely to be referenced in the near future. Spatial locality: Items with nearby addresses tend to be referenced close together in time.ZU9Z~LL_Locality exampleClaim: Being able to look at code and get a qualitative sense of its locality is a key skill for a professional programmer. Question: Does this function have good locality?2v (`Locality example0Question: Does this function have good locality?1 (aLocality exampleQuestion: Can you permute the loops so that the function scans the 3-d array a[] with a stride-1 reference pattern (and thus has good spatial locality)?0 DIbMemory hierarchiesSome fundamental and enduring properties of hardware and software: Fast storage technologies cost more per byte and have less capacity. The gap between CPU and main memory speed is widening. Well-written programs tend to exhibit good locality. These fundamental properties complement each other beautifully. They suggest an approach for organizing memory and storage systems known as a memory hierarchy.RCCcAn example memory hierarchydCachesCache: A smaller, faster storage device that acts as a staging area for a subset of the data in a larger, slower device. Fundamental idea of a memory hierarchy: For each k, the faster, smaller device at level k serves as a cache for the larger, slower device at level k+1. Why do memory hierarchies work? Programs tend to access the data at level k more often than they access the data at level k+1. Thus, the storage at level k+1 can be slower, and thus larger and cheaper per bit. Net effect: A large pool of memory that costs as much as the cheap storage near the bottom, but that serves data to programs at the rate of the fast storage near the top. UpZ U`ZUp       eCaching in a memory hierarchyfGeneral caching conceptsProgram needs object d, which is stored in some block b. Cache hit Program finds b in the cache at level k. E.g., block 14. Cache miss b is not at level k, so level k cache must fetch it from level k+1. E.g., block 12. If level k cache is full, then some current block must be replaced (evicted). Which one is the  victim ? Placement policy: where can the new block go? E.g., b mod 4 Replacement policy: which block should be evicted? E.g., LRUC= y9 =   +*gGeneral caching conceptsGTypes of cache misses: Cold (compulsary) miss Cold misses occur because the cache is empty. Conflict miss Most caches limit blocks at level k+1 to a small subset (sometimes a singleton) of the block positions at level k. E.g. Block i at level k+1 must be placed in block (i mod 4) at level k+1. Conflict misses occur when the level k cache is large enough, but multiple data objects all map to the same level k block. E.g. Referencing blocks 0, 8, 0, 8, 0, 8, ... would miss every time. Capacity miss Occurs when the set of active cache blocks (working set) is larger than the cache..}S.}  S !h$Examples of caching in the hierarchy/|ijlm n o p q rstuvwxyz{|} !"#$%&'()*+,-./O   0` .T3f` T3f3f` 999MMM` lff3f3޲` eoHff33Ҷ` ff!` T3f3fffq` T3f3fff[>?" dd@ ?nPd@ d " @ ` n?" dd@   @@``PR   @ ` `$p>>  C; ,(  , , s * "`0  T Click to edit Master title style! ! , c $t "@0  RClick to edit Master text styles Second level Third level Fourth level Fifth level!     S  , c $DƉ ":   AEECS 213 Introduction to Computer Systems Northwestern University2B0(2* 3 3 , Nff??"` , Nff??"` F   ," , Nff??" , Nff??"  , Nff??"  , Nff??"`  , c $ω "ce  L*"0(2Z , B޽h))? ? T3f3fff[ 0___PPT10.Zj&___PPT92p22 1_aqualab01R  0  0@(  0~ 0 Hff??"A 0 0. "    A Click to edit  0 <X "   T Click to edit Master title style! !T   0 "  0 Tff??"  4 0 0 T ff??"  4 0~  0 Hff??"A~  0 Hff??"A  0 RAk B?nwu-seal-gray"@P%  0 c $$ "`0   !Fabin E. Bustamante, Spring 2007H"0(2 3& 3& 3Z 0 B޽h))? ? T3f3fff[80___PPT10.Zj&( 0 d8(  d  d Nyy .   v* a11aa d Nyy 2 .  x* a11aad d c $ ?  4 d Nyy 9 3  RClick to edit Master text styles Second level Third level Fourth level Fifth level!     S d Tyy q   v* a11aa d Tyy q2   x* a11aaH d 0ηo~ ? 3380___PPT10.eۡ ((    Nyy .   \* a11aa  Nyy 2 .  ^* a11aa  T\yy q   \* a11aa  Tyy q2   ^* a11aaH  0ηo~ ? 3380___PPT10.dz͓ 0L0  $(   r  S 0   r  S 0    H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +.  0 UM %l (   ~  s *8,`0   ~  s *9,@0  l @  l  #" @& K  # lC1?q Main mem., frame buffers  @` L  # ltC1? q t Cache mem.    @` M  # lzW1?   V Applications    @` N  # l|W1?Zq J1X  @` O  # lLwW1?Z q L100X  @` P  # lW1?Z   NCost  @` Q  # l$W1?@ql NDRAM  @` R  # lcW1?@ lq NSRAM  @` S  # lHW1?@ l  B  @` T  # l0W1?lq& I1  @` U  # l8W1?l &q I6  @` V  # lXW1?l &  W Tran. Per bit  @` W  # lW1?&q  K10X  @` X  # lW1?& q J1X  @` Y  # lW1?&  U Access time    @` Z  # lW1? q  JNo  @` [  # l QW1? q KYes  @` \  # lW1?   RPersist?    @` ]  # loW1? qZ KYes  @` ^  # l4W1? Zq JNo  @` _  # l11?  Z  T Sensitive?    @`B `  T1 ?@  B a  T1 ?@B b  T1 ?@ @B c  T1 ? ~B d  N1 ?@  ~B e  N1 ?@qq~B f  N1 ?  ~B g  N1 ?  ~B h  N1 ?& &~B i  N1 ?l l~B j  N1 ?Z Z~B k  N1 ? H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +   0  @11( (  ( ~ ( s *8a,`0   ~ ( s *a,@0   ( Nc1? 3 Bcols"0  ( Ng1?L N  Brows"0  ( Nm1? p p 6"0 p ( H1?  ppp ( H1? ppp  ( H1? pp  ( Ndp1?pp  6"0 p  ( H1?p p p  ( H1?pp p  ( H1?pp  ( Nu1? p   6"0  ( T@x1? p  6"0 p ( H1? p p ( H1? p  ( N~1? p `  6"0 p ( H1? p` p ( H1? p` p ( H1? p`  ( N 1?V * ?0"0  ( N 1?`P 4 ?1"0  ( N 1?`4 ?2"0  ( N% 1?`U4 ?3"0  ( N 1?l k @ ?0"0  ( Nl 1? k  ?1"0  ( N 1? k  ?2"0  ( NT 1?\ k 0  ?3"0 p ( H Ԕ? n n`  ( TР1? n p 6"0   ( T1? np 6"0 v !( N1? npv "( N1? npp #( H Ԕ? n np $( N 1? j Qinternal row buffer"0 v %( N 1?`  &( N諬 1?  N16 x 8 DRAM chip"0 B '( ZDԔ?6` @ (( N 1?\=0  \addr"0 B )(  `DԔ? `  *( N 1? )  Bdata"0  +( NH 1? 2v  gsupercell (2,1)"0  B ,( ZDo?   -( Nܽ 1?mK F2 bits /" 0    .( Nl 1? O  F8 bits /" 0    /( NLŬ1?p Omemory controller"0 R 0( Nˬ1?   6"0  1( Nͬ 1? }  F(to CPU)" 0  H ( 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +p2   0 -$%$P89, #(  ,  , NԔ?* z,$D 0~ , s *۬,`0    , s *ܬ,@0<$D 0   , Nج1? W Bcols"0  , N41?L r   Brows"0  , Nh1?   p 6"0 p , H1?  pp  , H1? pp  , H1? p  , NH1?p   6"0 p  , H1?p  p  , H1?p p , H1?p  , Nd̬ 1?Z ,$ 0 IRAS = 2&0  , T 1?    6"0  , Tl 1?    6"0 v , N 1?  v , N 1?   , Nl 1?V * ?0"0  , NI 1?`t /4 ?1"0  , NI 1?`4 ?2"0  , N|I 1?`y44 ?3"0  , N, I 1?l @ ?0"0  , N I 1?  ?1"0  , NtI 1?  ?2"0  , NTI 1?C !j Qinternal row buffer"0 v , N 1?  , NI 1?4  N16 x 8 DRAM chip"0  , NI1?  `  6"0 p , H1?  ` p  , H1? ` p !, H1? `  ", N"I 1?\ 0  ?3"0  #, TT(I 1?  p 6"0  $, T*I 1?  p 6"0 v %, N 1? pv &, N 1? pB ', ZDԔ?  (, N(/I 1?,g  \addr"0 B ),  `DԔ?`  `  *, N04I 1?| SP  Bdata"0  +, Np2I 1?=] A2 /"0   ,, N;I 1?   A8 /"0   -, Nd+B#style.visibility<*, %(D4' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*/, %(DX' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*5, D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*5, %(D4' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*, %(D4' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*, 2i%(+8+0+, 0 +Z9   0 r'j'`:;0 '(  0 ~ 0 s *(z,`0    0 s *%,@0<$D 0   0 N8_I 1?F Minternal buffer"0  0 N cI1?' Bcols"0  0 NdgI1?| Y P  Brows"0  0 NlI1?P X  6"0 p 0 H1?PX p  0 H1?PXp  0 H1?PX  0 N\qI1? X  6"0 p  0 H1?X  p  0 H1?X p 0 H1?X  0 T vI1? X @  6"0  0 TxI1? X @  6"0 v 0 N1? X@ v 0 N1? X@  0 N|~I1?@ X  6"0 p 0 H1?@ X  p 0 H1?@ X p 0 H1?@ X  0 NI 1?8 Z ?0"0  0 N0I 1? sd ?1"0  0 NI 1?=d ?2"0  0 NI 1?xd ?3"0  0 N8I 1? p ?0"0  0 N̔I 1?  ?1"0  0 N`I 1?<    ?2"0  0 NI 1?  `  ?3"0 p 0 H Ԕ?P  v  0 N1?J Vv !0 N1?J V "0 NI 1? e Qinternal row buffer"0 v #0 N 1?  $0 NI 1?} # N16 x 8 DRAM chip"0  %0 NI 1? ,$ 0 ICAS = 1&0 B &0 ZDԔ?6 @ '0 NI 1?\5 0  \addr"0 B (0  `DԔ?   )0 NlI 1? y!  Bdata"0  *0 NI 1?m A2 /"0   +0 NpI 1?   A8 /"0   ,0 N|I1?p Omemory controller"0  .0 TI1?J V  6"0  /0 ThI1?D V  6"0  00 ThI1?P O ,$D 0 6"0 v 10 N Ԕ?I 2 20 ZaGEH1? ,$D 0Fz %  30  i  ,$D 0 40  NHI 1?9  lsupercell (2,1)&0   50  TI1?E%u 6"0 Pz R   60  C ,$D 0N %  70      80  NI 1?9  lsupercell (2,1)&0   90  TI1?E%u 6"0 B :0 B S ~DjJ11?   ;0  3 rI jJ11?R W(  DTo CPU"0 ZH 0 0޽h ? GGG___PPT10h.+lrD' = @B D' = @BA?%,( < +O%,( < +DA' =%(D' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*%0 %(DA' =%(D' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*00 %(DX' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*20 D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*20 %(DX' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*30 D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*30 %(D4' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*60 %(D4' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*0 5%(+p+0+%0 0 ++0+00 0 +[   0 ]QUQpww4 P(  4 ~ 4 s *dI,`0  I  4  `1))?E%  4 Z1))? ! v 4 N1?[ ?v 4 N1?Y v 4 N1?& [v 4 N1?A v  4 N1?s v  4 N1?@ Av  4 N1?(Y   4 T|1?u& 6"0 |  4 T1?x 4 TL 1?0 : supercell (i,j)"0 ,  4 T  1?\N{ 464 MB memory module consisting of eight 8Mx8 DRAMs 50 5/z ?  4  p? ^ ,$D 0B 4  ZDԔ??  2  4  2 ,$D 0  4  T 1?  addr (row = i, col = j)"0 $ B 4   `DԔ?2 2 B 4   `DԔ?  B 4   `DԔ?  ]B 4   `DԔ?s s B 4   `DԔ?@@B 4   `DԔ?DB 4   `DԔ?B 4   `DԔ?B 4 ZDԔ?  B 4 ZDԔ?  4 T 1? 0  MMemory controller 0 | 4 T1?.u|  4 T1?xm| !4 T1? %| "4 T1? < | #4 T1?;9 y | $4 T1?f ;| %4 T1? | &4 T1?U '4 T(! 1?n DDRAM 7"0   (4 T% 1?; ~ DDRAM 0"0  !z >  )4  >[ ,$D 0}  >  *4 #  > ,$D 0 +4  T) 1?1 i  ?0"0   ,4  T- 1? S i  @31"0   -4  T1 1?= i  ?7"0   .4  T5 1? i  ?8"0   /4  T9 1? i  @15"0   04  T< 1?z F i  @16"0   14  TD@ 1? i  @23"0   24  TC 1?m 9 i  @24"0   34  TlG 1? i  @32"0   44  TK 1? i  @63"0   54  TN 1?g 3 i  @39"0   64  T0 1? i  @40"0   74  TU 1?" i  @47"0   84  TT 1? i  @48"0   94  TP 1? i  @55"0   :4  T_ 1?z Fi  @56"0   Q >  ;4  Q > ,$D 0 Q   <4  Q  ,$D 0 =4  T1? Q  >4  T1? Q '  ?4  T1?' Q Z  @4  T1?ZQ   A4  T1?Q 3  B4  T1?3Q f  C4  T1?fQ  D4  T1? Q $ E4  TLf 1? >  *64-bit doubleword at main memory address A0+0 )   s  F4 # s ,$D 0J   G4   ,$D 0B H4   `DԔ? B I4   `DԔ? D B J4 B  `DԔ?  B K4   `DԔ?Y Y B L4   `DԔ? * B M4   `DԔ?w B N4 B  `DԔ? B O4   `DԔ?  P4  To 1?   Dbits 0-7 0    Q4  T$q 1?   E bits 8-15 0    R4  Tw 1?r  F bits 16-23 0    S4  T0y 1??  F bits 24-31 0    T4  T" 1? t  F bits 32-39 0    U4  TĂ 1? -  F bits 40-47 0    V4  TP 1?   F bits 48-55 0    W4  T 1?s   F bits 56-63 0   *z  OP X4  p O,$D 0  ]OP Y4   ]OP,$D 02 Z4  T1? ] P [4  Tl 1? O q64-bit doubleword"0  }  >  \4 #  > ,$D 0 ]4  T 1?1 i  ?0"0   ^4  T@ 1? S i  @31"0   _4  T 1?= i  ?7"0   `4  T 1? i  ?8"0   a4  T 1? i  @15"0   b4  T॰ 1?z F i  @16"0   c4  Tt 1? i  @23"0   d4  T 1?m 9 i  @24"0   e4  T 1? i  @32"0   f4  T0 1? i  @63"0   g4  Tķ 1?g 3 i  @39"0   h4  TX 1? i  @40"0   i4  T쾰 1?" i  @47"0   j4  T° 1? i  @48"0   k4  Tư 1? i  @55"0   l4  Tɰ 1?z Fi  @56"0   Q >  m4  Q > ,$D 0 Q   n4  Q  ,$D 0 o4  T1? Q  p4  T1? Q '  q4  T1?' Q Z  r4  T1?ZQ   s4  T1?Q 3  t4  T1?3Q f  u4  T1?fQ  v4  T1? Q $ w4  Tpϰ 1? >  *64-bit doubleword at main memory address A0+0 ) H 4 0޽h ? GGGF > ___PPT10 +CD ' = @B D ' = @BA?%,( < +O%,( < +DX' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*4 D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*4 %(DX' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*)4 D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*)4 %(D4' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*X4 %(+   0 8 <(  8 ~ 8 s *4۰,`0   ~ 8 s *D,@0  H 8 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +   0 < <(  < ~ < s *d,`0   ~ < s *,@0  H < 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +  0 @ I(  @ ~ @ s *,`0   ~ @ s *,@0   @  `  1? `` I main memory" 0  |R @ T1?6 x @  `< 1?M t I I/O bridge" 0  |R @ T1?6   @  ` 1?M W K bus interface"0   @ Z 1?    @ Z 1? g   @ Z 1?g    @ Z 1? D   @ Z 1?D   @ Z 1? #f  @ @ Z 1? %  @  `! 1? f "  AALU"0  @  `L$ 1?c  K register file"0 b @ Z 1? '6  @  f 1?tX ` @  `# 1?z FCPU chip" 0   @  `! 1?T )  H system bus" 0  B @ @  `D1?" n  @  `/ 1?T =)  H memory bus" 0  B @  `D1?" ffn H @ 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +  0  D (  D ~ D s *E,`0   ~ D s *E,@0   D ZLI 1?`   6"0 R D Z|G 1?   6"0  D ZO 1? @  @ "0 |R D T 1?   | D T 1?T|  D T 1?TP|  D T 1?PT|  D T 1?T|  D T 1?Tp|  D T 1?| D @ T 1?Tlp D Z U 1?0 AALU"0  D ZdY 1? K register file"0 |b D T 1?T B D ZD)?P P  D T]1? d@  K bus interface"0  D ZV 1?` -4  ?A"0  D Z4` 1?   ?0"0  D Z8i 1?P $  ?A"0  D Zm 1?   ?x"0  D Zp 1?`  I main memory" 0   D Zk 1? b -  H I/O bridge" 0   D Zx 1?b6 d%eax"0 O D H|8c?d [n Load operation: movl A, %eax j0 0  ,H D 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +  0  H (  H ~ H s *@,`0   ~ H s *,@0  R H Zt 1?   6"0  H Z 1? >  6"0 |R H T 1?   | H T 1?W| H T 1?WN|  H T 1?NW|  H T 1?W|  H T 1?Wn|  H T 1?~|  H @ T 1?~Won H Zؠ 1?. AALU"0  H Z 1? K register file"0 |b H T 1?W B H ZD)?N N  H T1? g>  K bus interface"0  H Z 1?. ;  ?x"0  H Z 1?^   6"0  H Z( 1?   ?0"0  H ZĹ 1?N "  ?A"0  H Z 1?   Mx00   H Z 1?^  I main memory" 0   H Z@Ʋ 1?j> d%eax"0  H Z˲ 1?$ e 0  H I/O bridge" 0  O H H|ϲ8c?  Load operation: movl A, %eax j0 0  ,H H 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +p  0 L '(  L ~ L s *,`0   ~ L s *|,@0  R L Z 1?   6"0  L Z 1? @  6"0 |R L T 1?   | L T 1?W| L T 1?WP|  L T 1?PW  L Z 1?W Mx00  |  L T 1?Wp|  L T 1?|  L @ T 1?Wop L Z 1?0 AALU"0  L Z 1? K register file"0 |b L T 1?W  L Tl1? g@  K bus interface"0 B L ZD)?  L Z4  1?`   6"0  L Z  1?   Mx00   L Z  1?`  I main memory" 0   L Z 1?   ?0"0  L Z 1?F   ?A"0  L Zl 1?b6 d%eax"0  L Zt 1? e 0  H I/O bridge" 0  O L Hh8c? n Load operation: movl A, %eax j0 0  ,H L 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B ++  0 RJP (  P ~ P s *9,`0   ~ P s *:,@0  R P Z> 1?   6"0  P Z4< 1? @  6"0 |R P T 1?   | P T 1?W| P T 1?WP|  P T 1?PW  P ZE 1?W My00  |  P T 1?Wp|  P T 1?|  P @ T 1?Wop P ZxJ 1?0 AALU"0  P Zd7 1? K register file"0 |b P T 1?W B P ZD)?P P  P TR1? g@  K bus interface"0  P ZPW 1?` 04  ?A"0  P Z\ 1?`   6"0  P ZpQ 1?   6"0   P Zb 1?f:  I main memory" 0   P Zf 1?   ?0"0  P Zj 1?F   ?A"0  P Zn 1?b6 d%eax"0  P Zq 1? e 0  H I/O bridge" 0  P P Hu8c? n Store operation: movl %eax, A j0 0  ,H P 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +k  0 T "(  T ~ T s *쏴,`0   ~ T s *Đ,@0   T Z  1?`   6"0 R T ZP 1?   6"0  T Zh 1? @  6"0 |R T T 1?   | T T 1?T|  T T 1?TP|  T T 1?PT  T Z 1?T My00  |  T T 1?Tp|  T T 1?| T @ T 1?Tlp T Z 1?0 AALU"0  T Z젴 1? K register file"0 |b T T 1?T  T TD1? d@  K bus interface"0  T Z 1?j ;*  ?y"0 |B T TD)?P B T ZD)?P P | T T 1?   T Zd 1?\ 0  I main memory" 0   T Zظ 1?   ?0"0  T Z 1?P $  ?A"0  T Z俴 1?l@ d%eax"0  T ZĴ 1?& b -  H I/O bridge" 0  P T H@8c?4 An Store operation: movl %eax, A j0 0  ,H T 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +  0 X (  X ~ X s *ڴ,`0   ~ X s *۴,@0   X Zߴ 1?^   6"0 R X Ztش 1?   6"0  X Z 1? >  6"0 |R X T 1?   | X T 1?W|  X T 1?WN|  X T 1?NW  X Z 1?W My00  |  X T 1?Wn|  X T 1?~| X @ T 1?~Won X Z 1?. AALU"0  X Z 1? K register file"0 |b X T 1?W  X T1? g>  K bus interface"0  X Z 1?~   Uy80 3 3 X Z  1?d8  I main memory" 0   X Z| 1?   ?0"0  X ZD 1?D   ?A"0  X Z 1?`4 d%eax"0  X Z 1? e 0  H I/O bridge" 0  P X HH8c?j w Store operation: movl %eax, A j0 0  ,H X 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +  0 ,,\ ^(  \ ~ \ s *),`0   ~ \ s **,@0  d2 \ <1?  d2 \ <Ԕ? d2 \ <1?;| sd2 \ <1? d2 \ <1?& d2  \ <Ԕ? d2  \ <1? o% ) 2  \ <.Ԕ?   Espindle"0   \ H`'8c?=xh Csurface 0 pB  \ HD1?Mq pB \ HD1?1 \ N11? Dtracks"0 d2 \ <>?.   \ NH; 8c?$Qb Qtrack k.0 fF " \   E{ ~B \ ND)?"~B \ ND)?0 ~B \ ND)?~B \ ND)? fF " \  W E ~B \ ND)?"~B \ ND)?0 ~B \ ND)?~B \ ND)? fF " \  W E ~B \ ND)?"~B \ ND)?0 ~B \ ND)?~B  \ ND)? fF " !\ A  E{ ~B "\ ND)?"~B #\ ND)?0 ~B $\ ND)?~B %\ ND)?  &\ ND1?"] Esectors"0 pB '\ HD1? pB (\ HD1? d )\ <1?   *\ N4J1?' Bgaps"0 B +\ @ ZD1?wq |B ,\ TD1? CI H \ 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +  0  !!` H(  ` ~ ` s *^,`0    ` s *`,@  4 Aligned tracks form a cylinder.pB ` HD1?,tpB ` HD1? ,t^ jb ` BG61? 4 $ ~ v2 ` N1?v  pB ` HD1?6,t  ` Nd 1?:> G surface 0" 0    ` N,i 1?> G surface 1" 0    ` Nm 1?>v G surface 2" 0    ` Nd\ 1?|>P  G surface 3" 0    ` Nlt 1? >  G surface 4" 0   ` N(y 1? >  G surface 5" 0  pB ` HD1?v ,t p2 ` H 1? D 4 > jb ` BG61?4 $  v2 ` N1?  p2 ` H 1?n< , jb ` BG61?4 $ v2 ` N1? p2 ` H 1?< , Vjb ` BG61?4 $ 6pB ` HD1?,tpB ` HD1?,tV|B ` TD1?D D  |B ` TD1?&, ,   ` Nd 1?  ^ cylinder k8 0  vB ` @ ND1? ,  ` N1?\ 0  Espindle"0  ` N1?  G platter 0" 0    ` N`1?  G platter 1" 0   !` N1? h  G platter 2" 0  H ` 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +  0 0d <(  d ~ d s *L,`0   ~ d s *$,@0  H d 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +  0 @h <(  h ~ h s *X,`0   ~ h s *0,@0  H h 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +V  0 S/K/PVYl .(  l ~ l s *X,`0   ^2 l 61?h ^2 l 6Ԕ?w ^2 l 61?4Sl ^2 l 61?g ^2 l 61?d ^2  l 61?V ^2  l 61?F " 2  l 3 B?MENGZcH I?MQo? n2&Mn2&M?M`Tn2&M?M`T  l Tlеwawa1?p n2The disk surface spins at a fixed rotational rate 30 32  l BhյԔ?  Espindle"0 z  fT  l  `  ,$D 0N  / T  l   / T 6 l  Tٵwawa1? N T  LBy moving radially, the arm can position the read/write head over any track. M0 M ; 2 l c BENG-iHmIDIQ o? *)*)DI`T*)DI`T / s v l  Zߵwawa1?fN pThe read/write head is attached to the end of the arm and flies over the disk surface on a thin cushion of air.Xq0 <Hz    l  H `,$D 0>T  E0  l # M ~  l2 l  <1? X 0 f l  61?C E x2 l  H8c?*N    l # Y ,$D 0>T  E0  l # M ~  l2 l  <1? X 0 f l  61?C E x2 l  H8c?*N    l #  Z,$D  0>T  E0  l # M ~  l2 l  <1? X 0 f  l  61?C E x2 !l  H8c?*2 "l BZԔ? ,$D 0 Espindle"0 2 #l B`Ԕ? ,$D 0 Espindle"0 2 $l B@Ԕ? ,$D 0 Espindle"0 2 %l <Ԕ? ,$D 0 Espindle"0 N    &l #  T,$D  0>T  E0  'l # M ~  l2 (l  <1? X 0 f )l  61?C E x2 *l  H8c?*N    +l #  T,$D  0>T  E0  ,l # M ~  l2 -l  <1? X 0 f .l  61?C E x2 /l  H8c?*L    0l # Z >T  E0  1l # M ~  l2 2l  <1? X 0 f 3l  61?C E x2 4l  H8c?*N    5l # Y ,$D  0>T  E0  6l # M ~  l2 7l  <1? X 0 f 8l  61?C E x2 9l  H8c?*N    :l # Y ,$D  0>T  E0  ;l # M ~  l2 l  H8c?*d l x pP Yl x pP,$D 0xB ?l B HDԔ?g@ @ r2 @l  B1?( X xB Al B HDԔ?i  r2 Bl  B1?  xB Cl B HDԔ?g  r2 Dl  B1?8rb El  BG61?P~2 Fl  N1?!HXrB Gl  BDԔ?  xB Hl B HDԔ?gr2 Il  B1?xrB Jl  BDԔ?X X rb Kl  BG61?X ~2 Ll  N1?1  rb Ml  BG61?  ~2 Nl  N1?p  rb Ol  BG61?x  xB Pl B HDԔ?g  r2 Ql  B1?  xB Rl B HDԔ?g  r2 Sl  B1?   Tl  NȰ 1? #X  Aarm"0  Ul  N0 1?( p v:read/write heads move in unison from cylinder to cylinder ;0 ; Wl  N91?k|P Espindle"0 H l 0޽h ?/  l l  GGG ''___PPT10&+@mnD%' = @B D%' = @BA?%,( < +O%,( < +D"' =%(D ' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*"l D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*"l %(D ' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*#l D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*#l %(D ' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*$l D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*$l %(D' =%( D' =A@BBBB0B%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*%l %(D' =%( D' =4@BBBB%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*l %(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*l D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*l %(D' =%(|D' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*l D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*l %(D' =%(dD' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*l D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*l %(D' =%(LD' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*5l D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*5l %(D' =%(4!D' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*&l D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*&l %(D' =%(%D' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*:l D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*:l %(D' =%()D' =4@BBBB%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*+l D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*+l %(D4' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*Yl %(++0+"l 0 ++0+#l 0 ++0+$l 0 ++0+%l 0 +  0 pt <(  t ~ t s *<,`0   ~ t s *p=,@0  H t 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +  0 x <(  x ~ x s *V,`0   ~ x s *W,@0  H x 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +  0 | <(  | ~ | s *hm,`0   ~ | s *n,@0  H | 0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +  0 00 n(   ~  s *,, (   ~  s *',`0     Z  1?}  I main memory" 0  |R  T 1?  ip  ZP/ 1?4}  6"0 |R  T 1? z p|  T 1?{*P|  T 1?P{*|  T 1?{*|  T 1?{*p|  T 1?p{*|  T 1?bz|  @ T 1?*B  Z8 1?z0 AALU"0   Zl> 1?& K register file"0 |b  T 1?*    ` 1?*   Z8@ 1?@H FCPU chip" 0  B   `GXH 1? B B   `GXH 1? P   ZD 1?h   Ndisk controller"0 B   `GXH 1? >P   ZLI 1?h .  Ngraphics adapter"0 B   `GXH 1? P   ZM 1?`   LUSB controller"0 B  ZD1? pB  ZD1? ~~p  ZR 1?@ Cmouse"0   Z@O 1?@7 Fkeyboard" 0  B  ZD1? p  Z|Z 1?@u Emonitor"0 b  N_ 1?   Bdisk"0 R ! ZG\H1?  v " N1? P v # N1?} p v $ N1?w .  % Zc 1? l  EI/O bus"0 v & N1?P s B ' ZD)? i|B ( TD)? |B ) TD)? Z |B * @ TD)? ^ ^  + Zh 1?4: K bus interface"0 ! , <$m8c?\ - eDisk controller reads the sector and performs a direct memory access (DMA) transfer into main memory.4f0 FH  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +d ! 0 -- (   ~  s *t,`0     Z| 1?}  I main memory" 0  |R  T 1?  ip  ZX 1?4}  6"0 |R  T 1? z p|  T 1?{*P|  T 1?P{*|  T 1?{*|  T 1?{*p|  T 1?p{*|  T 1?bz|  @ T 1?*B  Zȇ 1?z0 AALU"0   Z  1?& K register file"0 |b  T 1?*    ` 1?*   Z\ 1?@H FCPU chip" 0  B   `GXH 1? B B   `GXH 1? P   Z 1?h   Ndisk controller"0 B   `GXH 1? >P   Z 1?h .  Ngraphics adapter"0 B   `GXH 1? P   Z 1?`   LUSB controller"0 B  ZD1? pB  ZD1? ~~p  Z@ 1?@ Cmouse"0   Z 1?@7 Fkeyboard" 0  B  ZD1? p  Z 1?@u Emonitor"0 B   `D1? Z Z b ! N 1?   Bdisk"0 R " ZG\H1?  v # N1? P v $ N1?} p v % N1?w .  & Z 1? l  EI/O bus"0 v ' N1?P s B ( @ ZD)?: |B ) TD)? |B * TD)? Z |B + @ TD)? Z ^ p  , Zй 1?4: K bus interface"0  - <l8c?  jWhen the DMA transfer completes, the disk controller notifies the CPU with an interrupt (i.e., asserts a special  interrupt pin on the CPU)60 N 6H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +9  " 0 ` X   (   ~  s *ͺ,`0     ZϺwawa1?Np k1(Culled from back issues of Byte and PC Magazine)20 2  ZԺwawa1?a3  qmetric 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2000:1980 $/MB 8,000 880 100 30 1 8,000 access (ns) 375 200 100 70 60 6 typical size(MB) 0.064 0.256 4 16 64 1,000 0 ! 'sXB  01?`F  Zwawa1?`%  @DRAM 0   Zغwawa1?N` nmetric 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2000:1980 $/MB 19,200 2,900 320 256 100 190 access (ns) 300 150 35 15 2 100fo0 !  XB  01?>`G>  Z@wawa1?)8G @SRAM 0    Zwawa1?. ap metric 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2000:1980 $/MB 500 100 8 0.30 0.05 10,000 access (ms) 87 75 28 10 8 11 typical size(MB) 1 10 160 1,000 9,000 9,0000 ! (,rXB  01? `G   Zwawa1?   @Disk 0 H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B + # 0 A9 (   ~  s *(,`0     Twawa1?w% / 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2000:1980 processor 8080 286 386 Pent P-III clock rate(MHz) 1 6 20 150 750 750 cycle time(ns) 1,000 166 50 6 1.6 750<0  n>NXB  01?@0@H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +/ $ 0 VN (   ~  s *',`0   ~  s */,@0      fA ? 1?N H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B + % 0L0 . &   (   ~  s *=,`0   ~  s *=,@0  z  THwawa1?  Locality Example: Data Reference array elements in succession (stride-1 reference pattern): Reference sum each iteration: Instructions Reference instructions in sequence: Cycle through loop repeatedly: 00 Z10 Zc0  Z 10 ZD0  ZO D  4aYi.  TIwawa8c? .`  :sum = 0; for (i = 0; i < n; i++) sum += a[i]; return sum; ;0 ;)  *  3 r8\ jJ11?  ,$D 0 TSpatial locality(0 Z*  3 rl` jJ11?; j,$D 0 TSpatial locality(0 Z+  3 rd jJ11? ,$D 0 UTemporal locality(0 Z+  3 ri jJ11? Z ,$D 0 UTemporal locality(0 ZH  0޽h ? GGGN F ___PPT10& +ScD* ' = @B D ' = @BA?%,( < +O%,( < +DA' =%(D' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<* %(DA' =%(D' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<* %(DA' =%(D' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<* %(DA' =%(D' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<* %(++0+ 0 ++0+ 0 ++0+ 0 ++0+ 0 +A & 0 h`  (   ~  s *||,`0   ~  s *Ĉ,@0    H8c?$ @. <int sumarrayrows(int a[M][N]) { int i, j, sum = 0; for (i = 0; i < M; i++) for (j = 0; j < N; j++) sum += a[i][j]; return sum }0 Z `H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +A ' 0 h`0 (   ~  s *,`0   ~  s *p,@0    Hp8c?yg|  <int sumarraycols(int a[M][N]) { int i, j, sum = 0; for (j = 0; j < N; j++) for (i = 0; i < M; i++) sum += a[i][j]; return sum }0 Z `H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +^ ( 0 }@ (   ~  s *P,`0   ~  s *8,@0    H8c?w  Yint sumarray3d(int a[M][N][N]) { int i, j, k, sum = 0; for (i = 0; i < M; i++) for (j = 0; j < N; j++) for (k = 0; k < N; k++) sum += a[k][i][j]; return sum }0 H   H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B + ) 0 P <(   ~  s *»,`0   ~  s *˻,@0  H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B + * 0 ( `&& (   ~  s * ۻ,`0   R  Z 1?|/   `Xܻ 1?G  G registers" 0     ` 1?e O Uon-chip L1 cache (SRAM)"0    `hٻ 1?e  Pmain memory (DRAM)"0    `h 1?* ^  c%local secondary storage (local disks)"&0 &B  ZD1?5 B  ZD1?S< SB  ZD1?] B   `DԔ? M    `( 1? \f  };Larger, slower, and cheaper (per byte) storage devices&<0 <B  ZD1?     `D 1? jM ~@remote secondary storage (distributed file systems, Web servers)"A0 A R PX    3  Y0.   Z 1?PX     Z 1? \  FLocal disks hold files retrieved from disks on remote network servers.$G0 G R p    3 h ,    Z 1?p     Z 1?   {;Main memory holds disk blocks retrieved from local disks.$<0 < B  ZD1?" e"    `X 1?}  Voff-chip L2 cache (SRAM)"0 F     Q    Z  1? * ~>L1 cache holds cache lines retrieved from the L2 cache memory.$?0 ?    Z 1?    ZH  1?   q1CPU registers hold words retrieved from L1 cache.$20 2   Z 1?a eF ~ 3   $YX   Z 1?  v6L2 cache holds cache lines retrieved from main memory.$70 7    Z 1?~  3   ` 1?D  EL0:&0    `0 1? EL1:&0  !  ` 1? EL2:&0  "  `l" 1?  EL3:&0  #  `D& 1?S <'  EL4:&0  $  `* 1?u EL5:&0   %  `0) 1?c`G |:Smaller, faster, and costlier (per byte) storage devices&;0 ;B & ZDԔ?H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B + + 0 p <(   ~  s *`9,`0   ~  s *9,@0  H  0޽h ? GGGy___PPT10Y+D=' = @B +A7 , 0 && i(   ~  s *O,`0   v  N1?p<   T Q1?0   ?0"0   TdU1?0   ?1"0   T+B#style.visibility<* %(D4' =%(D' =%(D' =4@BBBB%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<* %(DA' =%(D' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*! %(De' =%(D ' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*" D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*" %(DA' =%(D' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*# %(DA' =%(D' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*& %(De' =%(D ' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(E' =1B B`BPB1:Bhidden*3>+B#style.visibility= `B<*% D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*% %(DA' =%(D' =%(D' =A@BBBB0B%(D' =1:Bvisible*o3>+B#style.visibility<*$ %(+P+0+! 0 ++0+" 0 ++0+# 0 ++0+$ 0 ++0+% 0 ++0+& 0 +O - 0 P(H(/0 '(   |  T1?   3 rh jJ11?,$D 0 J Request 14$ 0 Z &  C x4jJ11?,$D 0 J Request 12$ 0 Z ~  s *T,`0   ~  s *,,@P 0    Z1?&r ?9"0   Z$1?rr ?3"0 |  T1? A i  Z1? M  ?0"0   Z@1? M  ?1"0   Z1?   ?2"0   Zl1? ?  ?3"0   Z1?j M  ?4"0   Z 1?j M  ?5"0   Z1?j   ?6"0   Z<1?j ?  ?7"0   Z1?P M  ?8"0   Z1?P M  ?9"0   Z1?P   @10"0   Z1?P ?  @11"0   Zt#1?6 M  @12"0   ZL'1?6 M  @13"0   Z$+1?6   @14"0   Z.1?6 ?  @15"0 B   fD1?ss   # l4 1?&k 6"0    `2 1?x G Level k:" 0     `: 1?i pM  I Level k+1:" 0    Z<<1?sr @14"0   ZxB1?nk,$D 0 @14"0   ZF1?7 N ,$D  0 @12"0 B ! 3 rDjJ11?*eg " ZK1?v,$D 0 @14"0  # ZO1?l N ,$D 0 @4*"0  $ ZS1?!l,$D 0 @4*"0  % ZW1?h,$D  0 @12"0  & ZD[1?"w,$D 0 @12"0  ' 3 r_ jJ11? ! A0$0 Z  ( 3 rc jJ11? > A1$0 Z  ) 3 r0g jJ11? h A2$0 Z  * 3 rj jJ11?  A3$0 Z  + # lXn 1? x 6"0   , 3 rq jJ11?,$D 0 J Request 12$ 0 Z  - Z(u1?:w,$D  0 @4*"0  . Zly1?5l,$D 0 @4*"0  / Z}1?:t,$D  0 @12"0 H  0޽h ? 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Bustamante98Microsoft PowerPoint@z @QZ@0؏5 GSg  )'    """)))UUUMMMBBB999|PP3f333f3333f3ffffff3f̙3ff333f333333333f33333333f33f3ff3f3f3f3333f33̙33333f333333f3333f3ffffff3f33ff3f3f3f3fff3ffffffffff3ffff̙fff3fffff3fff333f3f3ff3ff33f̙̙3̙ff̙̙̙3f̙3f333f3333f3ffffff3f̙3f3f3f333f3333f3ffffff3f̙3f3ffffffffff!___www4'A x(xKʦ """)))UUUMMMBBB999|PP3f3333f333ff3fffff3f3f̙f3333f3333333333f3333333f3f33ff3f3f3f3333f3333333f3̙33333f333ff3ffffff3f33f3ff3f3f3ffff3fffffffff3fffffff3f̙ffff3ff333f3ff33fff33f3ff̙3f3f3333f333ff3fffff̙̙3̙f̙̙̙3f̙3f3f3333f333ff3fffff3f3f̙3ffffffffff!___wwweeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮϮ՜.+,0  $ , On-screen Show$CompSci - Northwestern University&O)) 3ArialTahomaTimes New Roman WingdingsVerdana Helvetica Courier NewTimes 1_aqualab01Microsoft Excel WorksheetThe Memory HierarchyRandom-Access Memory (RAM)Conventional DRAM organizationReading DRAM supercell (2,1)Reading DRAM supercell (2,1)Memory modulesEnhanced DRAMsNonvolatile memoriesTypical bus structureMemory read transaction (1)Memory read transaction (2)Memory read transaction (3)Memory write transaction (1)Memory write transaction (2)Memory write transaction (3)Disk geometry%Disk geometry (Muliple-platter view)Disk capacity Computing disk capacity%Disk operation (Single-platter view)Disk access timeDisk access time exampleLogical disk blocksI/O BusReading a disk sector (1)Reading a disk sector (2)Reading a disk sector (3)Storage trendsCPU clock ratesThe CPU-Memory gap LocalityLocality exampleLocality exampleLocality exampleMemory hierarchiesAn example memory hierarchyCachesCaching in a memory hierarchyGeneral caching conceptsGeneral caching concepts%Examples of caching in the hierarchy  Fonts UsedDesign TemplateEmbedded OLE Servers Slide Titles),_0Fabian E. 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